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I presume your 70km comes from the $30{\rm km\,s^{-1}}$ Earth orbital speed about the Sun multiplied by the 2.5 second return trip time to the Moon for a pulse of light. However, recall that, althoug …

Actually I would answer this almost exactly as @EmilioPisanty answered the a very like question - https://physics.stackexchange.com/a/65241/26076 this is the way that Born and Wolf "Principles of O …

I've added the homework tag even though it likely isn't. I think the best way to make sure of equations like this is simply to derive them yourself - that way you won't miss any quirky or unwonted con …

The intersection of rays - or convergence of waves to a focus in the Maxwellian picture - is indeed absent in the atmosphere, or from most of the light field that you're steeped in. The convergence o …

The purpose of the condenser is to set up a highly defocussed lightfield through the object plane, i.e. the slide or LCD array. Ideally, the source used should be an extended one so that the lightfiel …

That depends wholly on the specifications you aim for. In in general, though, it will be better to use biconvex lenses because this means that each surface needs to impart less optical power, and ther …

You need to learn about the Eikonal equation and its implications. When the electromagnetic field vectors are locally plane waves, i.e. over length scales of several wavelengths and less they are well …

"Engineering Optics" is a very broad, messy subject. Indeed the text you cite is a very broad, comprehensive document. It is therefore likely that your instructor has a very particular path they want …

You are correct that the emerging rays are parallel to the incoming ones, but sketch the situation. A ray cone $POQ$ converging to point $O$ with no glass plate converges, instead, in the presence of …

This is a good question: those marks are mystifying when you meet a beamsplitter for the first time, but I understand from manufacturers that the following can all be reasons for the marks (point 1 is …

It depends on what you mean by whether "geometrical optics can be applicable". Geometric optics will work fine with a system with a grating like the one you mention, although you need to know the ru …

Approximately the answer is yes. The relevant theory here is Gullstrand's equation. Look this up on the "Gullstrand's Equation" entry on the HyperPhysics site and also see the "Gullstrand's Equation C …

I take it you mean you wish to look at this problem without ray constructions. To do it without "geometrical" constructions is impossible because this is fundamentally a problem about geometry! That i …

I think the project assigned is calling on you to work out something fairly significant for yourself, so be patient and prepared to think fairly hard and not expect the answer to come too trivially. …

Probably nothing too unusual. The modal field will tend to be a little larger than the core. If the core cladding index difference is small, then the modal field spreads out a long way into the claddi …