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Quantum-mechanical object that captures some of the characteristics of particles associated to interactions with themselves and with other particles, such as the change in its mass as a function of its energy. Particularly useful in quantum field theory, either for relativistic particle physics or condensed matter physics. Although it also makes sense as a classical concept, it mostly has fallen into disuse nowadays.

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Gauge invariance and Ward Identity?

I have to work on vacuum polarization and gauge contributions for a given problem. I have to compute and show that their sum is gauge invariant, which according to the exercise, is equivalent to show …
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