Voltage in a circuit Suppose I have a following circuit:

I do not understand, why the potential difference between the points $c$ and $d$ is equal to the potential difference between the points $b$ and $a$? That is, why $\Delta V _{cd}=\Delta V_{ba}$? As I understand, potential is the potential energy per unit charge, and the potential difference tells us how much work shall we do in order to bring a test charge from one point to another. If so, why the potential differences mentioned above are the same? The distances aren't the same, so it seems obvious for me that the work should also be different.
 A: The crucial fact about these idealized circuits and electric potential differences that leads to the assertion you want to justify is

Wires are modeled as perfect conductors (Ohmic resistors with negligible resistance) for which there is zero potential difference between any two points. (This was edited from "perfect conductors are equipotentials.")

If we assume that the wires are perfect conductors (zero resistance), then Ohm's Law immediately gives the result above.
Having this fact in hand, we first notice that we have the following mathematical identity (which is basically the "loop rule"):
$$
  V_a + (V_d-V_a) + (V_c - V_d) + (V_b-V_c) + (V_a - V_b) = V_a
$$
which we can rewrite as
$$
  \Delta V_{da} + \Delta V_{cd} + \Delta V_{bc} + \Delta V_{ab} = 0
$$
Now using the fact above, we note that the potentials at any two points connected solely by a wire are the same, so that
$$
  \Delta V_{da} = 0, \qquad \Delta V_{bc} = 0
$$
which gives
$$
  \Delta V_{cd} + \Delta V_{ab} = 0
$$
and therefore since
$$
  \Delta V_{ab} =- \Delta V_{ba}
$$
we get the desired result
$$
  \Delta V_{cd} = \Delta V_{ba}
$$
A: First let's establish a feel for why they can be the same and then work out why they are indeed the same. The distances are not equal, but the resistance the test charge would face is also not the same, so the work might well be the same. This should show that the voltages can be the same.
To find that they are indeed the same, we need not consider the elaborate description of the work done on a test charge. It is sufficient to note that the potential difference must be zero if we complete the entire circuit. Seeing as the potential difference between the positive and the negative side of the source is some negative amount $-V$, we know the total voltage over the entire rest of the circuit must be $V$.
Taking the wires of the circuit to be perfectly conducting, we only encounter two obstacles: $R$ and $r$. Call the voltages (potential differences) over these $V_R$ and $V_r$, respectively. Then it is clear that we must have $V_R+V_r=V$.
But the potential difference between $b$ and $a$ is simply the sum of all the potential differences inbetween. So $\Delta V_{ba} = (-V) + V_r = V_r-V = -V_R$ which is obviously the same as $\Delta V_{cd}$ since $\Delta V_{dc} = V_R$.
